• of a severe financial crisis which demanded a radical re-organisation of the general economic system and specific aspects such as taxation and land distribution
• the financial crisis required the kind of political decisions that neither Louis XVI or his noble and clerical allies were prepared to allow or undertake
• the social inequalities could no longer be sustained in a country as enlightened as France had become due the influence of the philosophers and the American War of Independence
• Louis XVI was a spineless error-prone ruler who made one blunder after the other until the Revolution could no longer be prevented
• The political demands of the Third Estate particularly the Bourgeoisie could only be realised through revolution
• Once Louis XVI called the Estates-General, it became difficult if not impossible to stem the fervour of the Third Estate who were now effectively united, in one place and seeking real socio-economic and political changes not merely the superficial
• Once the Nobles in the assembly of Notables failed to resolve the simmering financial crisis in 1788, the revolution became only a matter of time
• Louis XVI could have taken the lead and instituted politico-social and economic changes
• The nobles and clergy who met as the assembly of Notables in 1788 had the opportunity to make necessary recommendations to address the socio- economic and political problems France was facing
• Louis XVI could have mitigated the financial problems through reducing on high expenditure
• Louis XVI could have used force to break up the so-called National Assembly which opened the floodgates of Revolution
• Louis XVI could have avoided congregating and raising the expectations of his restive Third estate subjects by summoning the Estates- General
• Most important work was The Spirit of the Laws (1748)
• Key argument is that there must be a separation of powers to prevent the abuse of power
• Montesquieu was born at a time when the Bourbon kings had absolute power that is executive, judicial and legislative powers
• Montesquieu believed that such a system resulted in power being abused and people being denied their rights hence the need to create a system of government where these powers are separated
• He argued that this was necessary to create a system of checks and balances where the executive could be checked by the judiciary which in turn checked the legislature and vice-versa
• Montesquieu believed that the main purpose of government is to maintain law and order, political liberty, and the property of the individual
• Montesquieu opposed the absolute monarchy of his home country and preferred the English system as the best model of government Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 1712 – 1778
• Most important work- The Social Contract(published in 1762)
• The opening sentence “Man was born free, and he is everywhere in chains,” a declaration of his belief individuals are oppressed by society
• The Social Contract is an important declaration of the natural rights of man
• It introduced the notion of the “consent of the governed” and the inalienable sovereignty of the people, as opposed to the sovereignty of the state or its ruler(s)
• It is widely acknowledged as the foundational text in the development of the modern principles of human rights that underlie contemporary conceptions of democracy
• Rousseau’s political philosophy is expressed as the principle of the general will
• Key argument is that any government gets its right to exist and to rule from “the consent of the governed”
• Rousseau argues that power belongs to the people who should always express their collective or general will
• The general will is the will of all the people together in the society or nation
• It aims to achieve the common good—meaning achieving what is best for the state as a whole
• The general will is expressed through the law which should always record what the people collectively desire (the general will)
• The law should always be universally applicable to all members of the state
• Law is made to ensure that people’s individual freedom is upheld, thereby guaranteeing that people remain loyal to the sovereign at all times John Locke 1632–1704
• Most important work-Treatises of Government published in 1690 arguing that a social contract is necessary to assure peace
• Spoke about the natural rights such as life, liberty and property that exist in the state of nature, arguing these can never be taken away or voluntarily given up by individuals
• These rights are “inalienable” (cannot be surrendered)
• The social contract is an agreement among the people and more importantly an agreement between them and the sovereign (preferably a king)
• The natural rights of individuals limit the power of the king, he cannot hold absolute power but he can only act to enforce and protect the natural rights of the people
• Where the king violates these rights, the social contract is broken
• The people can exercise their right to revolt and establish a new government
• Limited role for the government which he says is only there to protect the “public good,” meaning to protect property and encourage commerce
• Locke argued in favour of a representative government such as the English Parliament which had a hereditary House of Lords and an elected House of Commons
• Favoured government by adult male property owners
• Had no faith in ordinary property-less classes like workers and peasants- only property owners should have the right to vote
• Legislative arm of government should have supreme authority
• Executive and Judiciary should be subject to the legislature
• Less than 100 years after Locke wrote his Two Treatises of Government, Thomas Jefferson used his theory in writing the Declaration of Independence
• Locke argued for freedoms of thought, speech, and religion
• Rights to property the most important natural right
• He argued that owners may do whatever they want with their property as long as they do not interfere with the rights of others
• Born on the eve of the English Civil War, Locke sided with the Protestant Parliament against the Catholic King James II in the Revolution of 1685
• That Revolution reduced the power of the king and made Parliament the major authority in English government
• He is best known for his satirical work Candide
• Voltaire believed that an enlightened monarch was the best agent for bringing change He saw the Church as a static and oppressive force that could only be useful to counterbalance monarchs who could be oppressive.
• during those times of extremely high rates of illiteracy
• He believed that it was in the king’s interest to improve the education and welfare of his subjects
• He campaigned for freedoms of religion, expression, right to a fair trial and separation of church and state
• He believed that the French bourgeoisie to be too small and ineffective as an agent of change
• He attacked the aristocracy for being parasitic and corrupt
• He had no faith in the common people of the Third Estate who he regarded as ignorant and superstitious
• Voltaire distrusted democracy, which he saw as propagating the idiocy of the masses
Note. Before any examination of the philosophers is undertaken, it is necessary to understand the Enlightenment period and its ideas as these shaped the thinking of the philosophers
• The Enlightenment was an intellectual and cultural philosophical movement of the 18th century that emphasized the use of reason to critically examine long-accepted doctrines and traditions and that broughtabout many humanitarian reforms.
• It stressed reason, logic, criticism and freedom of thought over dogma, blind faith and the superstition which generally characterised religious beliefs.
• Enlightment thinkers created a new worldview stressing the importance of empirical observation in revealing the truth behind human society, the individual and the universe.
• Enlightenment thinkers held strong belief that the history of humanity was one of continued progress as long as it was supported by rational thought rather than by dogma and superstition.
• Enlightenment thinkers also argued for the use of education and reason as means of improving human life and character.
• This belief that the universe could be changed brought Enlightenment thinkers into direct conflict with the political and religious establishment.
• Enlightenment thinkers from all over Europe and North America were given the name philosophers, which is the French for philosophers.
• They crafted, debated and spread their ideas which were contained in many books including the Encyclopédie.
• Enlightment ideas generated a second kind of renaissance or widespread intellectual awakening among the middle and upper classes including the nobles, lawyers, higher clergy and landed aristocracy.
• The Enlightment ideas led to demands for political, social and economic changes especially in France. Enlightment Ideas
• Separation of powers.
• Political participation and representation for all.
• Power resides in the nation and not God.
• Rulers are accountable to the nation.
• Church is separate from the state.
• Freedom from servitude/serfdom.
• Civil/Individual rights
• Enlightenment thinkers argued for freedom of thought, religion and politics.
• Philosophers were generally critical of Europe’s absolutist rulers like France’s Bourbon monarchy but there were inconsistencies in their actions as some had close relationships with monarchical rulers for example: Voltaire who strongly criticized the French kings visited Frederick II of Prussia while Diderot travelled to Russia to work with Catherine the Great
• Revisionists have criticized Rousseau for his apparent support for authoritarian rule.
• Enlightenment thinkers were largely against nationalism and favoured international and cosmopolitan thinking.
• Philosophers were hostile to the Catholic Church whose pope, priests and practices they criticised
• However some embraced religion as necessary and were even religious like Rousseau while Locke worked out a new form of rational Christianity; others became
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