This is an important topic in both ZIMSEC and Cambridge syllabi. It is also a very popular topic among both students and teachers. The French Revolution has wider consequences for both France and Europe, and indeed, the world at large. Therefore there is need for thorough coverage of the major issues in this topic. In this chapter, a focused discussion of the causes of the revolution will be undertaken, while in the next chapter, the main focus will be the course of the revolution. On the causes, students are expected not only to identify the causes, but to analyze them by showing how each cause led to the French Revolution. A mere description of events should be avoided. In this chapter, therefore, the causes will be identified, and then each will be discussed in turn.
a)The system of the Ancient Regime.
b)The influence of the Philosophers.
c)The influence of the American Revolution.
d)The Financial crisis.
e)The Character of Louis XVI.
f)Poor harvests of 1787 – 1789.
The regime itself was one of the major causes of the French Revolution. It was characterized by the absolutism of the monarchy, the confused nature of the Judiciary system, and the unfair system of privileges.
With the exception of England and the Netherlands, the rise of national state in most of the European countries in the early modern Age went hand in hand with the consolidation of royal absolutism. It was generally accepted that the king ruled not by permission of the people, but by divine right, and all the power of government rested in the king himself. This development of royal absolutism reached its zenith in the last half of the seventeenth century under Louis XIV. Under Louis XIV’s successors, absolutism, however, degenerated internally into a form of tyranny, and externally into weakness and loss of prestige. No effective leadership could be exercised. The state machinery they had inherited called for competent monarchs, but the successors were incompetent and failed to use the power enshrined in their office.
Although the king theoretically exercised absolute authority, in practice, he had to rely on officials acting in his name. Even Louis XIV, the best example of an absolute king, could therefore not supervise the whole of his state administration on his own. Under his slack successor, Louis XV (1715-1774), the government of France was, in fact, in the hands of a royal council, known as the conseil du roi. The central government had thirty intendants as provincial agents. As local representatives of the king, their authority was practically absolute, particularly in the provinces closest to Paris, which had no local representative assemblies. In the remote provinces, local representative assemblies controlled by the nobility had a measure of authority.
The administration of government already displays the seeds of revolution, namely arbitrariness and confusion. In arrogant fashion, the pleasure of the King or his privileged officials was the decisive factor, rather than the spirit, or even the letter of the law. Government machinery was so unwieldy and complicated that the confusion and delays were the order of the day.
Administrative confusion in the Ancient regime was perhaps most noticeable in the administration of justice. Royal, feudal, municipal and ecclesiastical courts dispensed justice alongside each other. This confusion was exacerbated by the absence of a uniform code of law. There were, in fact, on the eve of the revolution, more than 300 codes in force. Many justice officials were extremely inept and corrupt. It is therefore, not surprising that administration of justice was a confusing, expensive and time-consuming process. Moreover, it paralysed control of the country’s administration and caused general embitterment amongst those who were wronged.
The king had the right to withdraw any case from the customary courts and to have it heard by the royal council. Louis XVI (1774 – 1793) had in fact, become law himself as evidenced by his statement that “the thing is legal because I wish it to be so”. In other words, the king had become the standard or yardstick for any legal issue in France. In addition he could, in terms of a lettre de cachet (a warrant under the royal seal) have anyone locked up without giving reasons and without a hearing or an opportunity for defence. The administration of justice, therefore, showed a striking element of arbitrariness. This confusion later led to a revolution by those adversely affected by it.
The privilege system is best seen in the division of France into three estates, the first, second and third estates. The third estate was the most exploited, whilst the first and second estates were the most privileged. The three estates will be discussed below.
Out of a total population of 23 000 000, there were probably no more than 130 000 priests, monks and nuns. The clergy enjoyed tremendous privileges and their influence extended far beyond what their small numbers would seem to indicate. The Roman Catholic Church, which was the dominant religion in France, was responsible for the registration of births, deaths, and marriages. It also controlled poverty relief and education. It was, in fact, a self government institution, almost a state within a state, with its own representative officials, own courts of law and an own representative assembly, which amongst other matters, determined the attitude of the Church towards the Monarchy.
The king had the right to appoint bishops and archbishops. These high offices in the church were consequently filled exclusively by the nobility, and ability or religions devotion hardly played a part. In reality members of the church were not a class, but could be distinguished as the higher clergy – such as the bishops and abbots, and the lower clergy such as the priest and parish priests. Those lower clergy were from the common people, amongst whom they worked. In general their exemplary life contrasted sharply with that of their superiors. They were poorly paid, and during the Revolution they were to make common cause with the third estate. In other words, the first estate was divided between the higher and lower clergy.
The church was extremely wealthy. Its income was derived from its properties, numerous donations and levies and the tithes which was levied on all harvest yields. The first estate was exempted from paying taxes.
The Nobility can be divided into two groups: the medieval nobility of the sword, and the new nobility of the robe, which had obtained its titles by marriage or the purchase of administration or judicial posts. As far as their financial status was concerned, the nobility ranged from the greatest wealth at the royal court at Versailles – at most 4 000 in number, to the lowest poverty on rural estates. Their rights and privileges included amongst other things, exemption from the most burden-some direct taxation, the taille, preferential tariffs for other taxes, the right to be tried by their own special courts, a monopoly of the highest offices in the administration of the state, and offices in the church, military and diplomatic services, and the exclusive right to the traditional sports of hunting and fishing.
The nobility was very ambitious. They were not satisfied with their privileged social and financial position, and strove for further privileges for themselves. Politically, they wanted to take over local government as well as participate in central government. Furthermore they wanted to extend certain of their manorial rights and privileges, increase the non-taxability of their properties and revive earlier privileges. The ambitions and position of the nobility and clergy must be viewed against the background of a centuries – old power struggle between the aristocracy that is clergy and the nobility, and the French monarchy. Since the Middle Ages, the aristocracy had been a stumbling block in the extension of the monarchy’s powers. It was only during the reign of Louis XVI that the aristocracy was subject to direct taxation. During Louis XVI, the aristocracy had won back most of their earlier social privileges. During Louis XVI’s reign, they prevented reform, and eventually led to revolution in 1789.
This estate constituted the largest part of the population, about 97%.The third Estate can basically be divided into three groups: The bourgeoisie or middle classes, the urban craftsman and labourers, and the peasants. The bourgeoisie represented about 10% of the total population of France or about half of the population in cities and towns. They owned about one – fifth of the land in the country. The rise of the bourgeoisie must be ascribed to the rise and progress of capitalism, trade and industry in Europe since the 14th century. By the 18th century, trade and industry were playing an important part in the national economy, and it was the bourgeoisie which kept the treasury going in times of crisis. This class included the wealthy new business elite, and government officials, independent craftsmen, wealthy merchants, book sellers and printers, and professionals such as scholars and lawyers.
The bourgeoisie strove for upward social nobility, and wanted the same privileges as the first two estates. Even more, they wanted political power. The wealthy and educated bourgeoisie, which was exempted from some of the heaviest taxes, was strongly opposed to the endeavors of the monarchy and the nobility to thwart its opportunities for social development advancement. They demanded that the social, legal and political privileges of the aristocracy be abolished. They read the works of the philosophers and the economists, and prepared themselves for an onslaught on a system of government which discriminated against them unfairly and which, in addition, was wasteful and inefficient.
The craftsmen, retailers and urban labourers did not share in the wealth of the higher bourgeoisie. Their existence in general was poverty – stricken. The urban labourer worked long hours for low wages. When a crisis occurred, thousands were impoverished. Their daily struggle consisted of warding off unemployment and hunger, and during the Revolution, they were to play an active role in the popular insurrections. The peasants in France constituted the majority. Possibly about 25 percent of them were tenant farmers, 50% were share – croppers, 20% were landless agricultural labourers and only 5% were land owners.
The conditions under which France’s peasants lived were highly disadvantageous, but there is little doubt that they were better off than similar classes in certain parts of Germany, Italy, Spain Ireland and England. Yet dissatisfaction amongst them was growing, and would become an important factor in the Revolution. Primitive agricultural methods, famines and epidemics were partially responsible. However, there were two reasons in particular for their dissatisfaction. There was heavy taxation, which was levied so unfairly and took most of their income, and secondly, the oppressive and irritating obligations they had towards the landowners. This entailed obligations such as unpaid labour (corvee), tolls, and the exclusive hunting and fishing rights of the nobility. Finally, there were the banalities, that is, all grain had to be ground in the manorial rule, all wine pressed in the manorial winepress, and all bread baked in the manorial bakery at prices fixed by the Lord. The peasants paid a number of taxes both direct and indirect taille. The peasants had a dual obligation i.e to the feudal lords and to the state.
The taille was the basic direct tax, and was the most oppressive. The capitation was a poll tax imposed according to income. The vingtieme or “twentieth” was originally 5 per cent of income. The corvee was a direct road tax in terms of which only the peasants had to provide labour and transport. Indirect, taxes included import tax and the gabelle or salt tax. The collection of these taxes was formed out, that is to say, they gave the right of tax collection to the highest bidder. The resultant collection therefore brought about anomalies and an arbitrary distribution of tax. All this imposed an unbearable burden on the peasants, leading to their willing participation in the Revolution.
Study Guides
i) What was the nature of royal power in France?
ii) Why was the unfairness of the system of taxation an issue in France?
iii)Why was the First Estate unpopular?
iv) What were the benefits of belonging to the second estate?
v) Why did the Third Estate consider itself to be disadvantaged in France?
vi) How could an individual enter the nobility?
vii) Explain, as fully as you can, why the Third Estate were unhappy with the following people:
a) King Louis XVI
b) Queen Marie Antoinette
c) The Nobility
d) The clergy
viii) Assess the role played by Louis XVI in bringing about the collapse of absolute monarchy in France in the period up to 1789.
ix) Account for the increasing resentment of the power and privileges held by the First and Second Estates in 1789.
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Zimsec and Cambridge past exam papers free download pdfs on eduzim
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Zimsec and Cambridge past exam papers free download pdfs on eduzim
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