(b) The influence of the philosophers

One can hardly explain the origin and course of the French Revolution without tracing the part played by the Enlightenment and the writings of the philosophers in it.  These must be seen as long term causes of the revolution.  One of the most noticeable features of the Enlightenment was its harsh criticism of all existing institutions and its subjection to “reason” a new kind of intellectual, the philosophers.  In many persuasive works, with heart-felt eloquence, the philosophers condemned the abuses of the ancien regime. The social structure, the church and the government in France, was exposed to continued and harsh criticism.

As the largest part of the French population was illiterate, the philosophers directed their propagandistic writings at the developed bourgeoisie. The bourgeoisie was receptive to the political and fiscal reforms which the philosophers championed, and to their defence of free enterprise.  The philosophers desired a society where undeserved privilege would be abolished.  As the revolutionary leaders were from the bourgeoisie, the influence of the philosophers cannot be underestimated.  It was these bourgeoisie leaders, who in turn, relayed the contents of the philosophers’ writings to their illiterate counterparts through rallies.

The most famous of these philosophers were Voltaire, Rousseau and Montesquieu. The Encyclopedists also deserve mention. Obviously the philosophers did not share the same opinions.  The greatest exception was perhaps Jean Jacques Rousseau who exchanged rational thinking for human emotions or intuition as a guide towards exploring the truth.  Voltaire on the one hand, was devoted to the concept of the sovereignty of the people, and on the other, a champion of enlightened despotism through reason.  However, the philosophers had one thing in common, their criticism of the abuses of the ancien regime. The ideas spread by the philosophers undoubtedly gave direction to the Revolution and exercised an important influence on it.  When their contemporary writings are analyzed, it is clear that a number of theses and principles were accepted as frequently repeated in the speeches of the revolutionary leaders and in the Declaration of the Rights of Man.

It is not true that, as is often believed, the philosophers in general strove for a political revolution.  Most of them, either pleaded for enlightened despotism, in which a strong central ruler governed the people to their greatest benefit, or a constitutional monarchy in which the king governed according to a constitution drawn up by representatives of the people. They did demand that the monarchy should be “enlightened” and institute extensive reforms. These included civic freedom, equality or the abolition of aristocratic privileges, equal taxation, religious tolerance, a uniform and fair judicial system, and the abolition of state monopolies.

Most of the philosophers, with Voltaire in the background, sharply attacked Christianity, and in particular, Roman Catholicism.  In this manner, the philosophers succeeded in undermining and destroying the bases of faith, religion and Christian morality. The result was frequently quite different from what the philosophers had in mind, because through their attacks on authority and tradition, the respect for absolute monarchy and the aristocracy was similarly undermined. Thus, the way was prepared for the destruction of all traditional institutions in the course of the Revolution. To what extent the philosophers were responsible for the Revolution remains an open question. One can state with certainty, however that the defects and abuses of the ancient regime, and not the philosophers were the chief cause of the radical change.  As Ergang rightly puts it, these defects and abuses were so clear that no philosopher was required to point them out.